System and method for atmospheric carbon sequestration

ABSTRACT

This invention relates to systems and methods for converting biomass into highly inert carbon. Specifically, some embodiments densify the carbon into anthracite-style carbon aggregations and store it in geologically stable underground deposits. The use of certain embodiments yield a net effect of removing atmospheric carbon via the process of photosynthesis and converting it into hard coal, which can be stored in underground beds that mimic existing coal deposits which are known to be stable for thousands of years.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/651,938 filed Jan. 4, 2010, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/143,518 filed Jan. 9, 2009, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed towards carbon sequestration, and more particularly, some embodiments of the invention provide systems and methods for converting biomass into highly inert carbon for long-term storage.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RELATED ART

Global warming is one of the top issues of the early 21st century. Several billion tons of fossil fuels are burned worldwide each year. The vast majority of the scientific community believes that about half the carbon from the burning of fossil fuel remains in the atmosphere for at least hundreds of years. Ice core samples indicate that the atmospheric CO₂ level has been relatively stable at 280 ppm for tens of thousands of years prior to the beginning of the industrial revolution in the early 1800s. Atmospheric carbon in the form of CO₂ has increased 40 percent by the early 21st century to 390 ppm due to the widespread use of fossil fuels. In the last few years, rapid increases in industrialization in the developing world have compounded the rate of increase of fossil fuel usage. There is also some evidence that natural sinks for about half of the CO₂ that is emitted from fossil fuel are starting to saturate due to the increasing CO, concentration or are losing their effectiveness due to global temperature rise. Consequently, scientific projections of future atmospheric CO₂ levels from just a decade ago substantially underestimate the current rate of increase of atmospheric CO₂. Many scientists are now concerned that the planet is close to a tipping point because increased CO, emissions are producing thermal effects which are feeding back on themselves and thus further increasing the rate of global warming. Clearly, there is urgent need for technologies to reverse this trend, and specifically for technologies, which can reduce the concentration of atmospheric CO₂, i.e., atmospheric carbon.

Each year, about 100 billion tons of atmospheric carbon is absorbed by plants via the process of photosynthesis. However, each year, an approximately equal amount of carbon is returned to the atmosphere by the earth's biomass due to plant respiration, the decay of dead plant matter, wildfires and human directed biomass burning, and other processes. The photosynthesis absorption of carbon and subsequent biomass release of that carbon remained in equilibrium for at least tens of thousands of years prior to the beginning of the industrial revolution as witnessed by ice core samples which have entrapped atmospheric gasses which have been sampled at both northern polar and southern polar ice regions.

Prior to human intervention, a small percentage of plant growth was in geographic regions, which, due to the local climate, topography and hydrology was prone to the development of peat bogs or other biomass preservation mechanisms. Over geologic timescales, these bogs evolve with changing climate and geology such that they become buried under later stage sedimentation and develop through a well documented process of transitioning to lignite coal, then bituminous coal and then, ultimately, anthracite or hard coal. Such coal deposits are found all over the world and contain hundreds of billions of tons of carbon. The carbon concentration in bog peat is relatively low and then progresses to about 50% in wet lignite coal, then to the 70% range in bituminous coal and, ultimately, can be as high as 99% in anthracite coal. High purity carbon, as is found in anthracite coal, is very chemically inert and is not attacked by acids, bases, biological activity or other mechanisms commonly found underground. In many areas, very ancient deposits of coal, as witnessed by their embedded fossils, can be found just a few feet below ground level and are, thus, not attacked by normal environmental mechanisms for at least thousands of years. Over the last few hundred years, bog peat has been actively stripped as a convenient fuel source and has, thus, largely stopped the formation of new coal deposits.

Currently, humanity is not removing any significant amount of atmospheric carbon for long-term storage to offset the large amount Of carbon dumped in the atmosphere by fossil fuel burning. In addition to dumping carbon from fossil fuel burning, land development typically releases, on an accelerated basis, carbon from decaying plant matter that had been stored in equilibrium conditions via mature ecosystems. As a result, over the past few years, several modern approaches to CO₂ sequestration have been proposed to resolve the problem.

Under one proposal, liquefied CO₂ would be injected under high pressure into deep underground structures. The current prototype for this is the use of high pressure CO₂ in the recovery of extra oil from declining oil fields. This, however, is not a truly carbon sequestration process because it actually produces more fossil fuel. In addition, the effects of massive amounts of deep CO₂ injection are unknown and may produce highly undesirable side effects. For example, CO₂ becomes a very powerful supercritical solvent well below the pressures and temperatures that will be used in deep CO₂ injection. As a supercritical solvent, the CO₂ readily picks up active chemicals that can increase its ability to dissolve substances. Accordingly, with its increased ability to dissolve substances, it is likely that supercritical CO₂ injection will not remain stable for geological period. Although similar proposals have been made for deep ocean CO₂ injection, the concern for stability over a long period of time remains.

Other proposals involve reacting or absorbing CO₂ with other minerals such as calcium oxide. However, such a proposal requires huge quantities of suitable minerals to directly neutralize atmospheric CO₂. In the case of calcium oxide, most of the world's calcium is already stored as calcium carbonate, so it cannot be effectively repurposed for more carbon storage.

In addition to CO₂ sequestration, some proposals aim to mitigate the problems of the global warming with carbon neutral solutions. One such popular solution is the use of biofuels, which uses the carbon and hydrogen bond energy from the photosynthesis capture of carbon to produce fuels that can be used as an alternative to fossil fuels. Although the burning of biofuels ultimately releases carbon back into the atmosphere, the carbon released originates from the atmosphere and was merely captured by the photosynthesis process. As such, the use of biofuels as fossil fuels is considered to be carbon neutral.

Other carbon neutral solutions include solar, wind and nuclear power stations, which can be used directly for stationary power applications or can be used to charge batteries to power mobile transport applications. These known solutions make no use of carbon at all. Unfortunately, none of the above-identified carbon neutral solutions addresses the CO₂ concentration that currently exists is in the atmosphere and the additional CO₂ that to be spewed into the atmosphere by the future use of fossil fuels.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention is directed toward systems and methods for producing highly inert carbon via various pyrolysis products of biomass, in order to address the atmospheric concentration of CO₂ and either reduce or balance it against increased fossil fuel carbon emissions.

Some embodiments of the invention involve a method for carbon sequestration, comprising: providing biomass to a pyrolyzing system, wherein the pyrolyzing system generates biochar and filtrate carbon; collecting the biochar and the filtrate carbon; subjecting the biochar and filtrate carbon to a neutral atmosphere at or above temperatures of 250° C. for a predetermined time interval to form inert carbon; and using the inert carbon as coal. In some embodiments, this coal is equivalent to anthracite coal.

Other embodiments of the invention involve a method for carbon sequestration, comprising: providing biomass to a pyrolyzing system, wherein the pyrolyzing system generates biochar and filtrate carbon; collecting the biochar and the filtrate carbon; subjecting the biochar and filtrate carbon to a neutral atmosphere at or above temperatures of 250° C. for a predetermined time interval; and using the biochar as a capture element for the filtrate carbon to form dense carbon aggregates. The method may further entail compressing the carbon aggregates into pellets.

Further embodiments of the invention involve a system for carbon sequestration, comprising: means for providing biomass to a pyrolyzing system, wherein the pyrolyzing system generates biochar and filtrate carbon; means for collecting the biochar and the filtrate carbon; means for subjecting the biochar and filtrate carbon to a neutral atmosphere at or above temperatures of 250° C. for a predetermined time interval to form inert carbon; and means for using the inert carbon as coal. In some embodiments, this coal is equivalent to anthracite coal.

Additional embodiments of the invention involve a system for carbon sequestration, comprising: means for providing biomass to a pyrolyzing system, wherein the pyrolyzing system generates biochar and filtrate carbon; means for collecting the biochar and the filtrate carbon; means for subjecting the biochar and filtrate carbon to a neutral atmosphere at or above temperatures of 250° C. for a predetermined time interval; and means for using the biochar as a capture element for the filtrate carbon to form dense carbon aggregates. The system may further entail means for compressing the carbon aggregates into pellets.

Other features and aspects of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description, which discloses by way of example, the features in accordance with embodiments of the invention. The summary is not intended to limit the scope of the invention, which is defined solely by the claims attached hereto.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

According to various embodiments of the invention, systems and methods are provided to specifically address the atmospheric concentration of CO₂ and either reduce or balance it against increased fossil fuel carbon emissions. Embodiments of the invention produce highly inert carbon via various pyrolysis products of biomass. More specifically, in accordance with some embodiments of the invention, CO₂ is sequestered into forms of carbon known to be viable for long-term storage. For example, some embodiments sequester CO₂ into coal, which is a form of carbon that is ideal for long-term carbon storage. Coal formations do not require massive amounts of another mineral or compound to facilitate storage.

Biomass input can be of any common type including wood, grasses, leaves, compost, food crop residues, wildfire abatement trimmings, and biomass from land use conversion. The biomass can be fed into any type of pyrolyzing system ranging from a flash pyrolyzer, which operates on a sub-second basis to roasting techniques that require several hours. The pyrolysis process can be oxygen or air fed and, thus, rely on partial oxidation for heating, or, it can be indirectly heated and operate in inert or reducing atmospheres to minimize partial oxidation products. The pyrolyzer can operate in a vacuum, at atmospheric pressure, or at high pressure. It can operate with a gaseous, liquid or supercritical fluid working medium. In most cases, the carbon output from such pyrolysis operations includes two or more components, typically including the following: (A) biochar which is small aggregates of carbon which partially retain some of the cellular structure of the original biomaterial and (B) micro to nanoscale filtrate carbon from the pyrolyzer's gas or liquid working medium

The biochar (A) is typically mechanically concentrated and discharged by gravity or pressure from an accumulation point inside the pyrolyzer. Such material can be ground or milled by common techniques conveniently into the 100-mesh size range.

Filtrate carbon (B) is ultra-fine carbon that typically forms from the dehydration and dehydrogenation of gasses and liquids which stream from the biomass during the pyrolysis process. Some of these particles can be extremely fine and are components of the persistent smoke, which permeates the atmosphere from large wildfires. These fine particles must be removed by one or more stages of fine filtration including, but not limited to, centrifugal separation techniques such as cyclones, disk centrifuges, compartmentalized centrifuges, etc. and mechanical filtration techniques such as mechanically wiped filters, reverse flushed filters, etc.

Within some embodiments, the biomass pyrolyzer can be operated for the sole purpose of making sequesterable carbon, while in others it can be operated for multiple purposes. In yet other embodiments, the pyrolyzer can be operated largely for another commercial purpose with carbon capture as an auxiliary function. For example, other purposes for the pyrolyzer include the production of biofuels or chemical feedstock for further processing into fuels or industrial chemicals.

For some embodiments, in order for the pyrolyzer's output carbon to be suitable for long-term geologic storage as hard coal, it must be highly inert and free of residual hydrogen and oxygen compounds or radicals, which could produce undesirable side reactions such as the long-term evolution of methane gas, etc. For example, if the atmosphere is reducing in nature, it could actually hydrogenate leftover surface radicals, which could lead to later stage undesirable reactions. Conversely, an oxidizing atmosphere will effectively clean radicals from the carbon surface, but it will tend to burn the substrate carbon to form CO2 and carbon monoxide, thus reducing the carbon yield from the process, therefore, a high temperature neutral atmosphere typically provides the optimal yield of inert carbon. Accordingly, in order to achieve a high level of inertness, some embodiments use the pyrolyzer to optimally subject both types of carbon particles to a neutral atmosphere at temperatures above 250° C. (and preferably 450° C)for several seconds to several minutes depending upon the rate of gas diffusion through the carbon particle stream. Other embodiments do so as an auxiliary or secondary process after pyrolyzation.

Typically, the ultimate results of the purification process will be a quantity of medium mesh, semi-porous biochar and a large quantity of filtrate carbon ranging in size from 400 mesh down to submicron nano-particles. These ultra-fine particles represent a particular challenge in that when dry, they will very readily disperse in air as a fine dark smoke, similar, but even more persistent than diesel smoke. These particles readily wet and can be locally controlled in water, but water based transport is undesirable because it adds substantial mass to be transported and any localized drying

Eventually, the biochar (A) and the filtrate carbon (B) can be mixed into a water-based slurry and pressed into pellets. The porous nature of the biochar acts as a filtration matrix for the much finer filtrate carbon during wet pressing operations such that the water squeezed out of the press typically runs clear. For hardwood based pyrolysis products, and a 1″ diameter press die, the water removal is complete and compaction is complete at about 5 tons per square inch press pressure. The resultant pellet, which can practically be a fraction of an inch tall to over an inch tall, can be directly handled in the semi-dry state with minimum carbon shedding. However, once such a carbon pellet starts to dry, it internally cracks and starts to shed carbon such that after a few days on a lab bench, it becomes very mechanically unsound and will disintegrate and produce a carbon dust plume with minimal handling. As pressed, with a 10 ton per square inch peak pressure, these pellets have an apparent density of about 1.2 which is somewhat higher than bituminous coal and in the lower range of anthracite coal. Elemental carbon has a density of about 2, so both these pellets and natural coals have significant residual porosity, which can be largely explained by the interspatial void volume for densely packed hard spheres which yields about 55% equivalent solid packing density.

In order to meaningfully impact atmospheric CO₂ levels, billions of tons of carbon must be sequestered as coal per year. Assuming an effective field density of about 1, a billion tons of carbon, or a gigaton of carbon, commonly referred to in the environmental literature as one GTC requires a volume one mile wide by one mile long by 1,100 feet thick, or one mile by eleven miles by 100 feet thick. Some long term energy/population/atmospheric models would imply a total requirement to store about 4 GTC per year worldwide, or roughly 1 GTC in the Americas, 1 GTC in Europe, 1 GTC in Northern Asia and 1 GTC in Southern Asia. Since there are very few large geographic formations and the transport cost over long distances is very significant, it is much more likely that these requirements would be met by dozens to hundreds of smaller storage sites, initially including mining reclamation sites where carbon sequestration coal would be put back in place of removed coal or other mined minerals. In such cases, the coal strata would typically be 30 to 50 feet in thickness and it would be highly desirable to minimize the required amount of overburden coverage. Such rock, subsoil and topsoil coverage would typically minimally be in the range of the same thickness as the carbon deposit. It is therefore important that the carbon feedstock to this storage process be conveniently transportable over moderate distances using existing infrastructure such as railroads and that it have minimal excess mass, i.e., minimal water content. Since, at an apparent density of 1.2, any added water will substantially increase the transport weight. It is also important that the carbon be inert so as not to contaminate the local ecology and that it be densified to be load bearing in a stable geometry to provide a stable ground surface above it. In order to accomplish all these transport and field bedding goals, the carbon should be pelletized into a size that is suitable for the transport and depositing equipment and for the geology and reclamation use of the storage site. Anthracite coal has been shipped for over 100 years on railroads and already has a standard range of pellet sizes that are in a suitable range for further consideration for these carbon sequestration pellets. The standard small sizes for anthracite coal are as follows:

Minimum Maximum Classification Size (inches) Size (inches) Chestnut 7/8 1-1/2 Pea  9/16 7/8 Buckwheat 3/8  9/16 Rice  3/16 3/8 Barley  3/32  3/16

In order to produce functional pellets, some embodiments add a binding agent to the biochar plus filtrate carbon mix. Since this process will be run in huge quantities, the binding agent must be readily available, preferably as a natural part of the pyrolysis process, non-toxic, non-polluting, biodegradable, water dispersible, and ultra-low cost. Simple plant starches appear to be an optimal candidate in that all plants store energy in starch grains and plant matter is the fundamental feedstock to the pyrolysis and carbon sequestration process. Simple starches make up the predominant mass of corn, potatoes, food grains and plant tubers. In addition, food starch behavior has been utilized for thousands of years. Starch particles in plants are typically in the micron size range and are typically composed of microcrystalline structures of the carbohydrates amylase and amylopectin. These starch granules are not water soluble at room temperature, but are readily dispersed in water because of their small size. This starch binder can be dispersed in water at about 1%-10% concentration, heated to 100° C. for one minute with agitation to hydrolyze the starch into a gel and then mixed one to one on a weight basis with biochar and filtrate carbon. For example, wood based pyrolysis carbons are mixed with a warm solution of 5% cornstarch and pressed at 8 tons peak in a 1″ diameter mold with thicknesses in the range of ½″ to 1″. About 70% of the starch is retained in the pellet, with the balance in the press water, which can be subsequently recycled to make more pellets with proportionally less added starch. The pellet is then dried for 30 minutes at 240° C. in a standard laboratory-drying oven to remove the excess water and crosslink the starch. The resulting pellet can be handled without shedding carbon and is dimensionally stable. This process results in the use of about 70 pounds of starch per ton of carbon pellets or 19 pounds of starch per ton of sequestered CO₂. A freshly pressed pellet 0.5″ thick ruptures at about 500 pounds loading in a lab compression test. The drying process must achieve pellet core temperatures high enough to crosslink the starch, but not so high as to initiate auto-ignition of the carbon surface when operated in an open-air environment. If the pellets are heated in a neutral atmosphere, they can be dried and crosslinked faster via higher peak temperatures without the danger of igniting their surfaces. However, very high local temperatures will pyrolyzer the binder, causing it to lose its effectiveness. A neutral inert atmosphere for accelerated pellet drying can conveniently use CO₂ and water vapor from a pyrolyzer or oxygen depleted recirculating exhaust gas containing nitrogen, CO₂ and water vapor. Such recirculating exhaust gas would typically be found in a pyrolyzing station's diesel, powered electric generator's exhaust system.

This type of self-filtering pelletizing process tends to concentrate more binder in the center of the pellets than at the surfaces so that the impact strength of the surface, which is important to minimize flaking during transport and bedding is lower than the bulk strength of the pellet. The surface strength of the pellets and their impact resistance can be further improved by spraying a higher concentration starch solution, i.e., 6% -8% on the surfaces of the pellets near the end of the initial drying process and extending the drying process by another 25% -50% to accommodate this surface treatment. The resultant surface coated pellets can be very durable with respect to impacts from one another and thus can simplify transport and bedding handling issues at about a 20% increase in starch loading.

The secondary surface coating has an added benefit of reducing the surface porosity and thus the water uptake of the pellets. Starch bound pellets can retain their strength and handling durability for long periods if they are kept dry. Such a pellet can be submerged in water at room temperature for one week and still retain its shape without shedding carbon, but at a highly reduced mechanical strength. Such water-induced degradation of the pellet structure may be highly desirable in some bed compaction schemes, but it requires keeping the pellet dry until bedding.

Since, for some embodiments, these carbon pellets will be bedded into large coal strata formations in a wide range of climate conditions and under all weather conditions including rainy seasons, freeze-thaw cycles and permafrost strata, particular care with concern to the interaction of the pellets and local water during the bed compaction process is required. Freely dispersing carbon as released from an improper sequestration methodology could become analogous to some of the infamous large-scale sludge ponds that hold billions of gallons of coal mining tailings. Thus, in order to accommodate a wide range of storage site hydrology, the option to substantially vary the submerged water behavior of such pellets is expected to be required.

The water uptake of the pellets and their mechanical strength in water can be greatly enhanced by adding a thin film coating of natural biodegradable water repellant. Pine rosin, which has been used as a natural water proofing agent for thousands of years (e.g. as wood boat caulking agent), works particularly well in this application. Pine rosin is a natural resin made up mostly of abietic or sylvic acid. It is also the main ingredient in natural wood varnishes. The rosin can be harvested from pine trees or extracted from soft wood feedstock coming into the pyrolyzers. For example, a 0.08 mil thick rosin coating on 1″ thick, 1″ diameter pellets, as described above, requires about 1 pound of rosin per ton of carbon pellets or 1 pound of rosin for every 7,000 pounds of sequestered CO₂. Rosin can be heated above its melting point to about 150° C. and sprayed directly on the pellets at the end of their drying cycle. The resulting pellets are water repellant and substantially more durable than their corresponding anthracite coal analogs. Given that common kitchen cling wrap is about 0.15 mil thick, a mechanically rosin coating that is 0.08 mil thick is quite substantial such that, in some applications, thinner coatings could be utilized.

Since atmospheric carbon sequestration involves a huge quantity of carbon to be deposited in a large number of geographic areas from diverse feedstock, and is subject to a wide range of geological and climatological considerations, a range of different pellet sizes and binder and water proofing agent concentrations may be utilized within the general scope of this patent. Some of the basic considerations of pellet design are volume versus surface area, water uptake and controlled degradability at the ultimate storage sites. In general, smaller pellets require less structural binder for transport because of the minimal impact forces that small structures are subjected to. However, small volume structures have proportionally larger surface areas so surface treatment costs increase as size gets smaller. Water repelling agents such as natural rosin are both expensive and can produce too long of a biodecay cycle, that is, they could decay substantially after the initial bedding compaction, causing later stage ground shifts, if not carefully engineered to the proper coating thickness.

Natural coal deposits can be subject to coal fires that can be difficult to extinguish. To minimize the possibility of fire propagation and to discourage the pirating of the carbon deposit for use as fuel, the pellets should be loosely packed with existing overburden. Additionally, for very thick storage deposits, walls of the natural ground strata should be either left in place or re-deposited to form storage chambers to minimize the possibility of any bulk ground movement due to mixing together two different densities of material with different compressive strengths and water absorption rates. Each site will have to be carefully geologically and hydrologically engineered for proper long-term storage.

From time-to-time, the present invention is described herein in terms of these example environments. Description in terms of these environments is provided to allow the various features and embodiments of the invention to be portrayed in the context of an exemplary application. After reading this description, it will become apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art how the invention can he implemented in different and alternative environments.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as is commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. All patents, applications, published applications and other publications referred to herein arc incorporated by reference in their entirety. If a definition set forth in this section is contrary to or otherwise inconsistent with a definition set forth in applications, published applications and other publications that are herein incorporated by reference, the definition set forth in this section prevails over the definition that is incorporated herein by reference.

While various embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not of limitation. Likewise, the various diagrams may depict an example architectural or other configuration for the invention, which is done to aid in understanding the features and functionality that can be included in the invention. The invention is not restricted to the illustrated example architectures or configurations, but the desired features can he implemented using a variety of alternative architectures and configurations. Indeed, it will be apparent to one of skill in the art how alternative functional, logical or physical partitioning and configurations can be implemented to implement the desired features of the present invention. Also, a multitude of different constituent module names other than those depicted herein can be applied to the various partitions. Additionally, with regard to flow diagrams, operational descriptions and method claims, the order in which the steps are presented herein shall not mandate that various embodiments be implemented to perform the recited functionality in the same order unless the context dictates otherwise.

Although the invention is described above in terms of various exemplary embodiments and implementations, it should be understood that the various features, aspects and functionality described in one or more of the individual embodiments are not limited in their applicability to the particular embodiment with which they are described, but instead can be applied, alone or in various combinations, to one or more of the other embodiments of the invention, whether or not such embodiments are described and whether or not such features are presented as being a part of a described embodiment. Thus, the breadth and scope of the present invention should not be limited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments.

Terms and phrases used in this document, and variations thereof, unless otherwise expressly stated, should be construed as open ended as opposed to limiting. As examples of the foregoing: the term “including” should be read as meaning “including, without limitation” or the like; the term “example” is used to provide exemplary instances of the item in discussion, not an exhaustive or limiting list thereof; the terms “a” or “an” should be read as meaning “at least one,” “one or more” or the like; and adjectives such as “conventional,” “traditional,” “normal,” “standard,” “known” and terms of similar meaning should not be construed as limiting the item described to a given time period or to an item available as of a given time, but instead should be read to encompass conventional, traditional, normal, or standard technologies that may be available or known now or at any time in the future. Likewise, where this document refers to technologies that would be apparent or known to one of ordinary skill in the art, such technologies encompass those apparent or known to the skilled artisan now or at any time in the future.

A group of items linked with the conjunction “and” should not be read as requiring that each and every one of those items be present in the grouping, but rather should be read as “and/or” unless expressly stated otherwise. Similarly, a group of items linked with the conjunction “or” should not be read as requiring mutual exclusivity among that group, but rather should also be read as “and/or” unless expressly stated otherwise. Furthermore, although items, elements or components of the invention may be described or claimed in the singular, the plural is contemplated to be within the scope thereof unless limitation to the singular is explicitly stated.

The presence of broadening words and phrases such as “one or more,” “at least,” “but not limited to” or other like phrases in some instances shall not be read to mean that the narrower case is intended or required in instances where such broadening phrases may be absent. The use of the term “module” does not imply that the components or functionality described or claimed as part of the module are all configured in a common package. Indeed, any or all of the various components of a module, whether control logic or other components, can be combined in a single package or separately maintained and can further be distributed in multiple groupings or packages or across multiple locations.

Additionally, the various embodiments set forth herein are described in terms of exemplary block diagrams, flow charts and other illustrations. As will become apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art after reading this document, the illustrated embodiments and their various alternatives can be implemented without confinement to the illustrated examples. For example, block diagrams and their accompanying description should not be construed as mandating a particular architecture or configuration. 

1. A system for carbon sequestration, comprising: means for providing biomass to a pyrolyzing system, wherein the pyrolyzing system generates biochar and filtrate carbon; means for collecting the biochar and the filtrate carbon; means for subjecting the biochar and filtrate carbon to a neutral atmosphere at or above temperatures of 250° C. for a predetermined time interval to form inert carbon; and means for using the inert carbon as coal.
 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the coal is equivalent to anthracite coal.
 3. A system for carbon sequestration, comprising: means for providing biomass to a pyrolyzing system, wherein the pyrolyzing system generates biochar and filtrate carbon; means for collecting the biochar and the filtrate carbon; means for subjecting the biochar and filtrate carbon to a neutral atmosphere at or above temperatures of 250° C. for a predetermined time interval; and means for using the biochar as a capture element for the filtrate carbon to form dense carbon aggregates.
 4. The system of claim 3, further comprising means for compressing the carbon aggregates into pellets.
 5. The system of claim 4, wherein the carbon aggregates are compressed with a peak pressure ranging approximately from 4,000 to 20,000 psi.
 6. The system of claim 5, wherein the carbon aggregates are compressed with a water-based starch binder having a starch concentration ranging approximately from 1% to 10%.
 7. The system of claim 6, further comprising means for drying and crosslinking the starch binder in open air at a temperature ranging approximately from 200° C. to 250° C. for approximately 30 minutes to 1 hour.
 8. The system of claim 5, wherein the carbon aggregates are compressed with a water-based starch binder having a starch concentration of approximately 4%; and the system further comprising: means for drying and crosslinking the starch binder in open air at a temperature ranging approximately from 200° C. to 250° C. for approximately 45 minutes to 1 hour and 30 minutes; and means for spraying a hot starch solution with a starch concentration of approximately 7% on to all surfaces of the pellet at the end of the drying.
 9. The system of claim 4, wherein the carbon aggregates are compressed with a peak pressure of approximately 10,000 psi and with a water-based starch binder having a starch concentration ranging approximately from 1% to 10%; and the pellets that result are 1″ in diameter and ½″ to 1″ thick.
 10. The system of claim 9, further comprising means for drying and crosslinking the starch binder in open air at a temperature of approximately 230° C. for approximately 30 minutes.
 11. The system of claim 9, further comprising means for drying and crosslinking the starch binder in open air at a temperature of approximately 300° C. for approximately 15 minutes in an inert atmosphere of CO₂ nitrogen and water vapor, wherein the CO₂ and nitrogen comprises 70% or more vapor pressure.
 12. The system of claim 4, wherein the carbon aggregates are compressed with a peak pressure of approximately 10,000 psi and with a water-based starch binder having a starch concentration of approximately 4%; and the system further comprising: means for drying and crosslinking the starch binder in open air at a temperature ranging approximately from 200° C. to 250° C. for approximately 45 minutes to 1 hour 30 minutes; and means for spraying a hot starch solution having a starch concentration of approximately 7% on to all surfaces of each pellet at the end of the drying.
 13. The system of claim 4, wherein a secondary coat is applied to each pellet by spraying a hot molten pine rosin on to all surfaces of the pellet at the end of a starch drying cycle such that a coating 0.02 mils to 0.08 mils thick results.
 14. The system of claim 4, further comprising a weather-protected means for transporting the pellets to a long-term underground storage location.
 15. The system of claim 14, wherein the long-term underground storage location utilized is a reclaimed surface mine.
 16. The system of claim 14, wherein the long-term underground storage location comprises an underground storage facility in which the pellets are stored in layers ranging approximately from 10 to 50 feet deep.
 17. The system of claim 16, wherein the pellets are tightly compacted with an overburden material.
 18. The system of claim 17, wherein material originally removed to create the long-term underground storage location is used as the overburden material.
 19. The system of claim 17, wherein the top layer material scraped away to create the long-term underground storage location is used as the overburden material.
 20. The system of claim 17, wherein the overburden material is approximately the same thickness as the underground storage facility's storage seam depth.
 21. The system of claim 16, wherein the underground storage facility has a storage packing structure in which the pellets are stored, wherein an inert fill material is placed between the pellets, thereby minimizing the potential propagation of underground coal seam fires.
 22. The system of claim 16, wherein the underground storage facility has a storage packing structure in which the pellets are stored, wherein groups of the pellets are compartmentalized with sections of inert fill material, thereby minimizing the potential propagation of underground coal seam fires.
 23. The system of claim 16, wherein the pellets stored by the underground storage facility have controlled structural degradation based on water exposure, thereby allowing the pellets to be seamlessly compacted into the underground storage facility.
 24. The system of claim 23, wherein the pellets are designed based on controlled degradation of the starch binder used in dry storage environments, shallow strata, or with a large amount of mix-in with the overburden material surrounding the pellets.
 25. The system of claim 23, wherein the pellets are coated with a durable water repellant rosin, thereby allowing construction of storage arrays in a wet environment, a water submerged environment, or in an environment that is subject to expected water exposure prior to replacement by the underground storage facility. 